The history of medical racism 

in the United States is extensive and has caused persistent, intergenerational harm to people of color, particularly Black and Indigenous communities. Built on false theories of biological racial difference, this history includes unethical experimentation, forced medical procedures, and systemic inequities in access to and quality of care. These injustices have contributed to lasting medical mistrust among marginalized groups and continue to drive health disparities today. 

18th and 19th centuries: "Racial science" and slavery

Medical exploitation of enslaved people: During the period of slavery, physicians used enslaved Black people for medical experimentation and training. For instance, the "father of modern gynecology," Dr. J. Marion Sims, performed crude, non-consensual surgeries on enslaved women without anesthesia, believing Black people had a higher pain tolerance.

• Grave robbing: To acquire cadavers for dissection and study, medical schools often targeted the graves of Black Americans, including the deceased of enslaved people. This widespread practice occurred without the consent of families and stripped individuals of dignity even after death.
• Weaponizing disease: In the 18th century, diseases like smallpox were deliberately used as biological weapons against Indigenous populations to justify colonial expansion and genocide. A notable example is the gifting of smallpox-infected blankets to Indigenous communities in 1763.
• False biological theories: The 19th century saw the rise of phrenology and other pseudoscientific theories that used misinterpreted data to promote false ideas of biological racial difference. For example, spirometers used to measure lung capacity incorrectly led doctors to conclude that Black soldiers had inferior bodies. 

20th century: Systemic abuse and segregation

• The Tuskegee Study (1932-1972): One of the most infamous examples of medical racism, this U.S. Public Health Service study withheld treatment for syphilis from 600 poor, rural Black men to observe the disease's progression. The men were deceived into thinking they were receiving free medical care. The study continued for decades, long after penicillin became a standard treatment.
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• Forced sterilization: As part of the eugenics movement, women of color were disproportionately targeted for forced or coerced sterilization. From 1970 to 1976, the Indian Health Service sterilized an estimated 25% to 50% of Indigenous women of childbearing age.
• Segregated hospitals: For much of the 20th century, segregated medical facilities and racist policies, such as those within the American Medical Association, limited Black physicians' access to training and practice. This created a "separate and unequal" system of care and further marginalized Black patients.
• Cold War radiation experiments: From 1960 to 1972, University of Cincinnati researchers exposed predominantly poor and Black terminal cancer patients to extreme levels of radiation without their informed consent. These experiments, funded by the Department of Defense, were intended to test the effects of radiation on troops. 

Contemporary medical racism

• Continuing health disparities: Decades after the end of segregation, systemic inequities persist. Today, Black women are three times more likely to die from pregnancy-related complications than white women, even with comparable education and income levels.
• Persistent bias: The myth of biological racial differences continues to influence medical care. For example, some medical trainees still believe that Black people have a higher pain tolerance or thicker skin, leading to inadequate pain management for Black patients.
• Discriminatory algorithms: Modern medical algorithms, including those used to calculate kidney function (eGFR), have historically included "race-corrected" factors that can result in worse health outcomes for Black patients by delaying diagnoses or access to treatment.
• Implicit bias and mistrust: Patients of color frequently report experiencing discrimination and disrespect from healthcare providers, leading many to avoid or delay seeking medical care. This legacy of abuse and ongoing bias has created a deep-seated mistrust of the medical system within marginalized communities.